(a) Waltz Analysis of the Causes of War
Introduction
Kenneth Waltz, a prominent realist scholar in international relations, analyzed the causes of war in his influential book “Man, the State, and War” (1959). He categorized the causes of war into three levels of analysis, also known as the “three images of war”.
Waltz’s approach provides a framework for understanding why wars occur, considering individual, state, and international factors.
Waltz’s Three Levels of War Analysis
1. First Image: Human Nature (The Individual Level)
- This theory suggests that war is caused by human aggression, ambition, and leadership failures.
- Some leaders, due to their personal beliefs, emotions, or irrational decisions, may initiate wars.
- Example: Adolf Hitler’s personal ambitions and ideology played a key role in causing World War II.
2. Second Image: The State Level (Domestic Politics)
- This view argues that internal state factors, such as government type, nationalism, or economic systems, determine war likelihood.
- Authoritarian regimes and unstable governments are more prone to conflicts.
- Example: The rise of military dictatorships in Africa has led to civil wars and conflicts.
3. Third Image: The International System (Anarchy in World Politics)
- Waltz emphasized that the international system is anarchic, meaning there is no global authority to prevent wars.
- Countries seek power and security, leading to military competition, alliances, and conflicts.
- Example: The Cold War (USA vs. USSR) was a result of power struggles in an anarchic world order.
Impact of Waltz’s Theory on International Relations
- Shaped modern realist thought by explaining how power and security concerns shape global politics.
- Influenced the development of neorealism, which focuses on systemic factors in global conflicts.
- Provided a structured way to analyze conflicts and diplomatic strategies.
Criticism of Waltz’s Theory
- Critics argue that he overlooks economic and cultural factors that can prevent wars.
- His focus on anarchy and power struggles ignores the role of international organizations in peacekeeping.
(b) UN Charter on the Right of Self-Defence
Introduction
The United Nations Charter, established in 1945, provides a legal framework for maintaining international peace and security. Article 51 of the UN Charter explicitly recognizes the right of states to self-defence in response to armed attacks.
This right allows countries to protect themselves while ensuring that military actions follow international laws and UN regulations.
Key Provisions of Article 51 (Right to Self-Defence)
1. Individual and Collective Self-Defence
- A country has the right to defend itself if attacked.
- If a state is unable to defend itself alone, other nations can assist in collective self-defence.
- Example: After the 9/11 attacks (2001), the U.S. invoked Article 51 to justify military action in Afghanistan.
2. Conditions for Self-Defence
- Self-defence is only justified if an armed attack occurs.
- The response must be proportional—meaning force used should not exceed what is necessary to prevent further attacks.
3. Role of the UN Security Council
- Any state exercising self-defence must immediately report to the UN Security Council.
- The UN can take further action to maintain peace or authorize military interventions.
Examples of Self-Defence Under the UN Charter
- Israel’s wars with its neighbors (1967, 1973) – Israel cited self-defence against Arab attacks.
- Russia-Ukraine War (2022) – Ukraine claimed self-defence against Russia’s invasion.
Criticism and Controversies
- Some countries misuse the concept of self-defence to justify invasions and pre-emptive strikes.
- Example: The U.S. invasion of Iraq (2003) was based on a broad interpretation of self-defence.
Conclusion
Waltz’s theory of war causation provides a realist perspective on global conflicts, while Article 51 of the UN Charter establishes the legal framework for self-defence in international law. However, both concepts face challenges in modern conflicts, requiring continued global diplomacy to balance power and peace.
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