September 2025

Introduction Plant growth regulators (PGRs), also known as phytohormones, are chemical substances produced by plants that influence various physiological processes such as growth, development, flowering, fruiting, and response to stress. Traditionally, well-known plant hormones include auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, and ethylene. However, in recent years, scientists have discovered several novel endogenous (produced within the […]

Introduction The coleoptile tip experiment is one of the most famous experiments in plant biology. It was first conducted by Charles Darwin and his son Francis Darwin in the late 19th century. This experiment played a foundational role in the discovery of plant hormones, especially auxins, which are responsible for plant growth and development. The

Introduction Seed storage proteins are a vital group of proteins that are synthesized and stored in seeds during their development. These proteins serve as a reserve source of nitrogen, carbon, and sulfur, which are used by the developing plant embryo during germination and early seedling growth. They are essential for seed viability, seedling vigor, and

Introduction Ammonia assimilation is the process through which plants incorporate ammonium ions (NH4+) into organic compounds. It is a critical part of nitrogen metabolism, especially after biological nitrogen fixation or nitrate reduction. One of the pathways used for ammonia assimilation in plants is the GDH (Glutamate Dehydrogenase) pathway. While the GS-GOGAT pathway is the main

Introduction Nitrogen is an essential nutrient for plants, required for the synthesis of proteins, nucleic acids, and other cellular components. Although nitrogen gas (N2) makes up about 78% of the Earth’s atmosphere, plants cannot use it in this form. It must first be converted into ammonia (NH3) or related compounds in a process called nitrogen

Introduction F-ATPase, also known as ATP synthase, is a vital enzyme complex found in the inner membranes of mitochondria and chloroplasts. Its main function is to synthesize ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the universal energy currency of the cell. In plants, ATP synthase is found in both mitochondria and chloroplasts, where it plays a key role in

Introduction The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or Citric Acid cycle, is a central metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of plant cells. It plays a major role in energy production by oxidizing acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and transferring electrons to NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers are later

Introduction Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. While this process occurs in both plants and animals, the way glycolysis is regulated differs significantly between the two. These differences arise mainly because of the distinct physiological roles and environmental conditions that plants and animals experience. In this answer, we

Introduction Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. In plants, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and plastids. While the general pathway is similar to that in animals, plants have some unique alternate reactions that allow them to bypass certain steps of conventional glycolysis. These alternate

Introduction The Calvin cycle, also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle, is the set of chemical reactions that take place in the chloroplasts during photosynthesis. It is a part of the light-independent reactions (also called the dark reactions) and is responsible for the fixation of carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds like glucose. The Calvin cycle