September 2025

Differentiate between the active and passive transport.

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Introduction Transport of substances across the cell membrane is a fundamental biological process essential for the survival and function of all living cells. This process ensures that nutrients, ions, and molecules reach the cell’s interior, while waste products are expelled. The movement of these substances occurs through two primary mechanisms: active transport and passive transport. […]

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Explain the phases of microbial growth curve in batch culture.

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Introduction In microbiology, the microbial growth curve is an essential concept used to describe the growth of microorganisms over time in a closed system, such as a batch culture. A batch culture is a system where no additional nutrients are added after the initial inoculation, and waste products are not removed. As microorganisms grow, they

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Discuss the effect of temperature and pH on microbial growth.

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Introduction Microorganisms are highly sensitive to environmental conditions, and two of the most critical physical factors that influence their growth are temperature and pH. Each microbial species has specific temperature and pH ranges in which it can grow and thrive. Understanding these effects is essential in microbiology, food preservation, fermentation technology, and infection control. In

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Write short notes on mycotoxins and mucormycosis.

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Introduction Mycotoxins and mucormycosis are two significant terms in the field of microbiology and medical science. While mycotoxins refer to toxic substances produced by certain fungi, mucormycosis is a serious fungal infection caused by a group of molds called mucormycetes. Both have major health implications for humans and animals and are studied extensively for their

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Give a brief description of ultrastructure of algae with a suitable diagram.

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Introduction Algae are a diverse group of photosynthetic organisms found in aquatic and moist environments. They range from unicellular microscopic forms like Chlorella to large multicellular forms like seaweeds. Algae are eukaryotic (except for blue-green algae or cyanobacteria, which are prokaryotic) and possess membrane-bound organelles. Understanding their ultrastructure helps in appreciating their ecological roles, photosynthetic

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Explain the terms antigenic shift and antigenic drift.

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Introduction Influenza viruses are notorious for their ability to change and evolve over time. Two key mechanisms responsible for these changes are antigenic shift and antigenic drift. Both processes affect the surface proteins of the virus—mainly hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA)—which are critical for immune recognition. These changes can impact vaccine effectiveness and may lead

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Describe the replication cycle of Influenza virus.

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Introduction The influenza virus is an enveloped RNA virus that causes the flu, a highly contagious respiratory illness. It belongs to the Orthomyxoviridae family and exists in several types, including Influenza A, B, and C, with Influenza A being the most common and virulent. Understanding the replication cycle of the influenza virus is critical for

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Discuss five general characteristics of archaea.

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Introduction Archaea are a unique group of single-celled microorganisms that differ significantly from both bacteria and eukaryotes. Though they are prokaryotic, like bacteria, archaea have distinct genetic, biochemical, and structural characteristics that place them in a separate domain of life. They are best known for their ability to survive in extreme environments, but they are

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Write features of cyanobacteria and alphaproteobacteria. Give one example of each.

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Introduction Cyanobacteria and Alphaproteobacteria are two major groups of bacteria that play important roles in the ecosystem and have distinct biological features. Both belong to the domain Bacteria but differ significantly in terms of structure, metabolism, and ecological roles. Cyanobacteria are known for their photosynthetic ability, while Alphaproteobacteria include many nitrogen-fixing and symbiotic species. In

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