2025

1. Introduction Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) are independent, non-profit entities that work toward social, environmental, humanitarian, and economic development without direct control by governments. NGOs play a critical role in advocacy, public policy, disaster relief, environmental protection, and human rights. They function at local, national, and international levels, collaborating with governments, private entities, and civil society […]

Introduction South Asia is one of the most environmentally vulnerable regions in the world due to rapid industrialization, deforestation, climate change, and poor environmental governance. The region is home to diverse ecosystems, including Himalayan glaciers, tropical forests, and coastal areas, all of which face severe environmental challenges. Among South Asian nations, Sri Lanka has its

1. Five Multilateral Agreements Related to Transnational Air Pollution Transnational air pollution occurs when pollutants travel across national borders, affecting global air quality, climate, and ecosystems. To address this, several multilateral agreements have been established. A. Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (CLRTAP) – 1979 B. Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer

(i) Rio +5 and Rio +10 Introduction The Rio Summit (Earth Summit) of 1992 was a landmark international conference that established key principles for sustainable development. To assess its progress, follow-up summits were held at Rio +5 (1997) and Rio +10 (2002). A. Rio +5 (1997) – Five Years After the Earth Summit B. Rio

(i) Floods and Droughts Introduction Floods and droughts are extreme weather phenomena that significantly impact ecosystems, agriculture, human settlements, and economic activities. While floods involve an excess of water, droughts occur due to prolonged water scarcity. Both are intensified by climate change, deforestation, poor water management, and urbanization. A. Definition and Causes 1. Floods Floods

Introduction The North-South Divide is a term used to describe the economic and political differences between developed nations (Global North) and developing or underdeveloped nations (Global South). It highlights disparities in income, industrialization, technological advancements, and living standards. While the Global North consists of industrialized countries like the U.S., Canada, and European nations, the Global

Introduction The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon that helps maintain the Earth’s temperature by trapping heat in the atmosphere. However, due to human activities, this effect has intensified, leading to global warming and climate change. One of the major contributors to this crisis is globalisation, which has accelerated industrialization, deforestation, pollution, and resource exploitation,

(a) Cooperatives and Sustainable Development Introduction Cooperatives are member-owned organizations that promote economic, social, and environmental sustainability. They operate based on democratic decision-making, shared resources, and profit redistribution, making them a key player in sustainable development. 1. Role of Cooperatives in Sustainable Development A. Economic Sustainability B. Social Sustainability C. Environmental Sustainability 2. Challenges Faced

Introduction Inequality is a major challenge in achieving social justice, economic growth, and sustainable development. It refers to the unequal distribution of resources, opportunities, and rights among individuals and communities. Various indicators help measure inequality in different aspects of society, such as income, education, health, gender, and access to resources. This essay explores the key