Introduction
Gender stratification refers to the unequal distribution of wealth, power, opportunities, and privileges between men and women. It is rooted in patriarchy and shaped by cultural, religious, economic, and political systems. Over time, gender stratification has undergone significant changes, driven by social reform, feminist movements, globalization, legal interventions, and shifting cultural attitudes. This essay explores how gender stratification has changed across historical, social, and economic contexts, with a special focus on the Indian scenario.
Understanding Gender Stratification
Gender stratification involves systemic discrimination against women in education, employment, property rights, political participation, and decision-making. In many societies, including India, gender norms have historically placed men in dominant positions and women in subordinate roles, both in the family and the public sphere.
Historical Phases of Gender Stratification
1. Pre-Industrial Societies
- In tribal and agrarian societies, gender roles were often complementary rather than hierarchical. Women played vital roles in food production, caregiving, and artisanal crafts.
- However, with the rise of private property and patriarchy, women were gradually pushed into domestic roles, and men assumed ownership and decision-making powers.
2. Feudal and Early Agrarian Societies
- During feudalism, class and gender hierarchies were deeply intertwined. Women were considered property of fathers or husbands.
- In India, practices like child marriage, purdah, sati, and denial of education to girls reinforced gender stratification.
3. Colonial Period
- The British colonial period in India brought new legal systems and economic changes, but also reinforced traditional gender roles through policies that neglected women’s rights.
- Social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar, and Savitribai Phule worked to abolish oppressive practices and promote women’s education.
4. Post-Independence Era (1947 onwards)
- The Indian Constitution granted equality, voting rights, and legal protection to women. Reforms included the Hindu Succession Act (1956), Dowry Prohibition Act (1961), and others.
- Women entered education and employment sectors, though disparities remained.
5. Contemporary Period
- In recent decades, globalization, technology, and feminist activism have challenged traditional gender roles.
- Women are more visible in politics, business, media, and STEM fields, though wage gaps and glass ceilings persist.
- Movements like #MeToo, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, and workplace laws (like the Sexual Harassment Act, 2013) have addressed gender-based violence and harassment.
Factors Contributing to Change
1. Legal and Policy Reforms
Progressive laws promoting gender equality in property rights, education, employment, and protection from violence have helped reduce stratification.
2. Education and Awareness
Women’s access to education has increased significantly. Literacy among Indian women has improved from 8.9% in 1951 to 70.3% in 2021, enabling better participation in the economy and decision-making.
3. Economic Participation
Women have increasingly joined the workforce, though labor force participation rates remain low in India. Self-help groups, microfinance, and entrepreneurship have improved women’s financial independence.
4. Feminist Movements
Feminist scholars and activists have challenged patriarchal structures and demanded reforms. Second-wave feminism focused on legal and workplace rights, while third-wave feminism emphasizes intersectionality, identity, and inclusion.
5. Technological Change
Digital access and mobile technologies have created new spaces for women in e-commerce, telehealth, online education, and activism.
Continuing Challenges
- Patriarchy persists: Cultural norms often override legal rights, especially in rural areas.
- Violence against women: Domestic violence, honor killings, and workplace harassment continue.
- Underrepresentation: Women are still underrepresented in politics, boardrooms, and STEM careers.
- Intersectional inequalities: Caste, class, religion, and rural-urban divides intensify gender discrimination.
Feminist Perspectives
Naila Kabeer emphasizes empowerment through resources, agency, and achievements. Joan Acker highlights how institutions are gendered, embedding inequality in structures. Kimberlé Crenshaw’s concept of intersectionality explains how gender stratification interacts with caste, class, and ethnicity.
Conclusion
Gender stratification has evolved over time, moving from rigid patriarchal structures to more flexible and equitable systems—though not uniformly or completely. Legal reforms, education, and feminist movements have brought significant change, but deep-rooted inequalities remain. Addressing these requires sustained efforts at policy, institutional, and community levels to ensure that all individuals—regardless of gender—have equal rights, opportunities, and dignity.