Course Code: MHI-106 Assignment Code: MHI-106/AST/TMA/2024-25
Studying tribes under colonialism involves examining how colonial powers impacted the social, economic, and political lives of indigenous communities. During the colonial period, particularly under British rule in India, tribes were often viewed as “backward” or “primitive” and were subjected to various forms of exploitation, marginalization, and control. The study of tribes in this context sheds light on the policies implemented by colonial governments, the resistance offered by tribal groups, and the ways in which colonialism transformed tribal societies.
Here is an approach to studying tribes under colonialism:
1. Colonial Classification of Tribes
The British colonial administration classified Indian society into categories, including caste and tribe, to simplify governance. Tribes were often labeled as “aboriginal” or “primitive”, which justified colonial intervention and control.
- The British census of the late 19th century formalized the distinction between caste-based communities and tribes, often stereotyping tribal people as “wild”, “unsettled”, and resistant to civilization.
- Tribes were categorized into “criminal tribes” under the Criminal Tribes Act of 1871, which allowed the government to regulate and monitor tribal movements, viewing them as a threat to social order.
2. Colonial Policies and Their Impact on Tribes
The British introduced various policies to exert control over tribal populations, affecting their traditional way of life. Some of the key impacts of these policies include:
a) Dispossession of Land
- Land policies introduced by the British displaced many tribal communities from their traditional lands. The Permanent Settlement in Bengal and other land revenue systems sought to bring tribal lands under British economic control. Tribal land was often taken over by non-tribal landlords or moneylenders, forcing tribes into debt or bonded labor.
b) Exploitation of Forest Resources
- Forests, the primary habitat for many tribal communities, became a major resource for the colonial state. The Indian Forest Act of 1865 and later acts in 1878 and 1927 restricted access to forests, criminalized traditional practices like shifting cultivation, and commercialized timber. This led to the alienation of tribal communities from their livelihood sources and increased their economic dependency.
c) Tribal Resistance to Colonialism
Tribes were not passive subjects under colonial rule. They often actively resisted British encroachment on their land, forest resources, and way of life. These resistances took the form of rebellions and uprisings.
- Notable tribal revolts include the Santhal Rebellion (1855-1856) and the Munda Rebellion led by Birsa Munda in 1899-1900, where tribal leaders and communities rose against British policies that dispossessed them of their lands and traditional rights.
3. Missionary Activities and Cultural Impact
Missionaries played a significant role in tribal regions during the colonial period. They were often sent by the colonial administration to “civilize” tribes through conversion to Christianity, education, and changes in social customs.
- While missionaries provided education and healthcare, they also led to the erosion of tribal cultural practices, religious traditions, and communal autonomy. The missionary efforts introduced new power dynamics in tribal regions, leading to cultural dislocation and social tensions between converted and non-converted tribal groups.
4. Legal and Administrative Changes
The colonial administration introduced various laws and tribal protection policies. While these were framed as protecting tribes, they often worked to restrict their freedoms and further consolidate British control.
- For instance, the Scheduled Districts Act of 1874 and the Government of India Act of 1919 provided special administrative measures for tribal areas, where the colonial state appointed agents to oversee tribal matters. These policies limited tribal self-governance and sought to bring tribal communities under colonial rule.
5. Anthropological Studies
Colonial administrators and scholars often studied tribes through the lens of anthropology, which was a growing discipline during the colonial period. The study of tribes in colonial India was often carried out by British administrators-turned-anthropologists, who documented tribal customs, social structures, and practices.
- For instance, the works of anthropologists like W.H.R. Rivers and Verrier Elwin recorded tribal life, but their studies were influenced by colonial biases. They often portrayed tribes as static societies, needing guidance from the more “civilized” colonial powers.
- This anthropological approach to studying tribes helped the colonial government justify their policies of intervention and control over tribal areas.
6. Post-Colonial Perspectives on Tribal Studies
In post-colonial historiography, there has been a re-evaluation of the colonial interpretation of tribal history. Scholars argue that colonial records often marginalized tribal voices and overlooked their agency. Post-colonial studies focus on how tribes actively shaped their destinies, resisted colonial rule, and maintained their cultural identity despite oppressive policies.
- Subaltern studies emphasize the agency of tribal communities, highlighting their role in resistance movements and their attempts to preserve autonomy in the face of colonial exploitation. Ranajit Guha and other subaltern historians have critiqued colonial historiography for neglecting the tribal perspective and have attempted to reclaim their narratives.
7. Tribes and Nationalist Movements
During the late colonial period, tribes also became a part of the nationalist struggle against British rule. Gandhian movements often sought to integrate tribal concerns into the larger anti-colonial framework, and many tribal leaders began to see their fight against colonialism as part of the broader struggle for Indian independence.
- Tribal leaders like Alluri Sitarama Raju in the Rampa Rebellion (1922-24) emerged as significant figures in the resistance against both British and non-tribal exploitation of tribal areas.
Conclusion
Studying tribes under colonialism involves understanding the ways in which colonial policies impacted tribal societies, how tribal resistance movements shaped the history of the time, and how colonial anthropology influenced perceptions of tribal life. The research of post-colonial scholars has added a new dimension to tribal studies by challenging colonial narratives and emphasizing the agency of tribes in shaping their history. By analyzing the interaction between colonial power and tribal communities, scholars can better understand the long-term effects of colonialism on tribal societies and their ongoing struggles for autonomy and recognition.