September 2025

Introduction The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or Citric Acid cycle, is a central metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of plant cells. It plays a major role in energy production by oxidizing acetyl-CoA to carbon dioxide and transferring electrons to NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers are later […]

Introduction Glycolysis is a central metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy. While this process occurs in both plants and animals, the way glycolysis is regulated differs significantly between the two. These differences arise mainly because of the distinct physiological roles and environmental conditions that plants and animals experience. In this answer, we

Introduction Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that breaks down glucose to produce energy in the form of ATP. In plants, glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and plastids. While the general pathway is similar to that in animals, plants have some unique alternate reactions that allow them to bypass certain steps of conventional glycolysis. These alternate

Introduction The Calvin cycle, also known as the Calvin-Benson cycle, is the set of chemical reactions that take place in the chloroplasts during photosynthesis. It is a part of the light-independent reactions (also called the dark reactions) and is responsible for the fixation of carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic compounds like glucose. The Calvin cycle

Introduction Photosystem I (PS I) is a key protein-pigment complex involved in the light reactions of photosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. It plays a vital role in converting light energy into chemical energy, particularly in the form of NADPH. NADPH is an important molecule that helps drive the dark reactions or the Calvin cycle

Introduction The Emerson enhancement effect is an important discovery in the field of plant photosynthesis. It was first observed by Robert Emerson in the 1950s and helped scientists understand how plants use light energy more efficiently when exposed to different wavelengths of light. This experiment changed the way we understand photosynthesis and led to the

Introduction Plant vacuoles are membrane-bound structures found in the cells of plants. They are large, fluid-filled sacs that occupy a major part of the plant cell’s interior. These organelles are surrounded by a membrane called the tonoplast and play a variety of roles in maintaining the health and function of the plant cell. Their size

Introduction The plant cell wall is one of the most important structures in plant biology. It gives the plant cell its shape, provides strength and support, and protects the plant from external damage. The cell wall is unique to plant cells and is not found in animal cells. It is made up of different layers