i) Job Crowding Hypothesis
The Job Crowding Hypothesis explains how women and marginalized groups are pushed into low-paying, low-skill jobs due to discrimination, not capability. It suggests that labor markets are segmented, with men dominating desirable, high-paying jobs while women are crowded into roles with limited growth. This artificial segregation leads to wage gaps and poor working conditions. It is a structural barrier, not an individual choice.
ii) Feudal Society
Feudal society refers to a historical socio-economic system based on land ownership and hierarchical relationships between landlords and peasants. In this system, women were mostly confined to domestic roles and denied rights to land, education, or labor outside the home. Patriarchal norms dominated, and women’s work was unrecognized. The legacy of feudal structures still influences rural gender inequality in parts of India and the world.
iii) Women Care Providers
Women as care providers play a crucial role in families and communities. They are responsible for cooking, cleaning, childcare, elderly care, and emotional support—often without pay. Despite its importance, care work is undervalued and not counted in national income. This limits women’s time for education, paid work, and self-development. Recognizing care work is essential for achieving gender equality and policy reforms like paid parental leave.
iv) The “Doubly Excluded” in the Informal Economy: Migrant Workers
Migrant women workers in the informal economy face double exclusion—first as informal workers without job security, benefits, or rights, and second as migrants who lack access to local services and legal protections. They are often invisible in labor statistics, excluded from social security, and vulnerable to exploitation. COVID-19 highlighted their plight when thousands of female migrant workers lost jobs and returned to villages without support.