2025

Describe the CPD-base pathway for phosphatidyl choline synthesis

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CPD-Base Pathway for Phosphatidylcholine Synthesis Introduction Phosphatidylcholine (PC) is one of the most abundant phospholipids in eukaryotic membranes. It plays crucial roles in membrane structure, lipid metabolism, and signaling. The CDP-choline pathway (also known as the Kennedy pathway) is the major route for PC biosynthesis in mammalian cells. Steps of the CDP-Choline (Kennedy) Pathway The […]

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Explain DAG transacylase pathway for triglyceride synthesis

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DAG Transacylase Pathway for Triglyceride Synthesis Introduction Triglyceride (triacylglycerol) synthesis is a crucial biochemical process that stores energy in adipose tissues. The diacylglycerol acyltransferase (DGAT) enzyme plays a central role in the final step of triglyceride synthesis through the DAG transacylase pathway. Overview of Triglyceride Synthesis Triglycerides are composed of one glycerol molecule and three

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List different stages of cholesterol biosynthesis, explain first step in detail

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Stages of Cholesterol Biosynthesis and Detailed First Step Introduction Cholesterol biosynthesis is a multi-step anabolic pathway that occurs mainly in the liver. It involves the conversion of acetyl-CoA to cholesterol through several enzymatic reactions. Cholesterol plays a vital role in membrane structure, hormone synthesis, and bile acid formation. Four Main Stages of Cholesterol Biosynthesis 1.

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Calculate the number of ATP produced by oxidation of one molecule of glucose by glycolysis and TCA cycle. Is this number less or more than that produced during β-oxidation of palmitic acid?

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ATP Yield from Glucose Oxidation vs. β-Oxidation of Palmitic Acid ATP Production from Glucose Oxidation Complete aerobic oxidation of one glucose molecule involves three main stages: glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Below is a breakdown of the ATP yield: 1. Glycolysis 2 ATP (net gain) 2 NADH → 5 ATP (via oxidative phosphorylation)

Calculate the number of ATP produced by oxidation of one molecule of glucose by glycolysis and TCA cycle. Is this number less or more than that produced during β-oxidation of palmitic acid? Read More »

What is the role of fatty acid synthase complex in fatty acid metabolism?

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Role of Fatty Acid Synthase Complex in Fatty Acid Metabolism Introduction The fatty acid synthase (FAS) complex is a multi-enzyme protein responsible for catalyzing the synthesis of long-chain saturated fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA precursors. It plays a vital role in lipid metabolism and energy storage, particularly in the liver, adipose tissue, and mammary

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What are ketone bodies and how are they synthesized? Why is level of ketone bodies increased in uncontrolled diabetes?

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Ketone Bodies: Synthesis and Role in Diabetes Introduction Ketone bodies are water-soluble molecules produced in the liver during the breakdown of fatty acids. They serve as an alternative energy source during prolonged fasting, starvation, or carbohydrate-restricted conditions. The three primary ketone bodies are: Acetoacetate β-Hydroxybutyrate Acetone Synthesis of Ketone Bodies (Ketogenesis) Ketogenesis occurs in the

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Explain the major pathway of fatty acid oxidation taking palmitic acid as an example. At which site of the cell do these reactions take place?

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Fatty Acid Oxidation Using Palmitic Acid as an Example Introduction Fatty acid oxidation, also known as β-oxidation, is the primary process by which fatty acids are broken down to produce energy. This process takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Palmitic acid (C16:0), a saturated long-chain fatty acid, is a common substrate used to

Explain the major pathway of fatty acid oxidation taking palmitic acid as an example. At which site of the cell do these reactions take place? Read More »

Explain the partitioning of fixed carbon to sucrose and starch synthesis in leaf cells

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Partitioning of Fixed Carbon to Sucrose and Starch in Leaf Cells Introduction Photosynthesis in leaf cells results in the fixation of atmospheric CO₂ into carbohydrates. The two primary end-products of photosynthetic carbon assimilation are sucrose and starch. Sucrose serves as the major transport form of carbohydrates, while starch is a temporary storage form in chloroplasts.

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Explain the mechanisms involved in concentration of CO2 in C4 plants and indicate the relevance of these adaptations for plant growth

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CO₂ Concentration Mechanisms in C4 Plants and Their Significance Introduction C4 photosynthesis is a specialized adaptation in certain plants that enhances the efficiency of carbon fixation under high temperature, intense sunlight, and low CO₂ conditions. This mechanism involves the spatial separation of initial CO₂ fixation and the Calvin cycle to minimize photorespiration and improve productivity.

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Describe the process of glycogenesis and its regulation

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Glycogenesis and Its Regulation Introduction Glycogenesis is the metabolic process that converts glucose into glycogen for storage. This process is essential for maintaining blood glucose levels and storing energy, primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle. It occurs when the body has an excess of glucose, such as after meals. Steps in Glycogenesis 1. Glucose

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