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(i) Conflict and Its Resolution Introduction Conflict is a disagreement or clash between individuals, groups, or nations due to differences in ideologies, interests, resources, or values. It can be social, political, economic, religious, or military. While conflicts are natural in human interactions, their resolution is essential for maintaining peace, justice, and progress. A. Types of

(i) Social Transformation and Redistribution of Power in Socialism Introduction Socialism is a political and economic ideology that emphasizes collective ownership, equal distribution of wealth, and social justice. It seeks to transform society by redistributing power and resources to reduce inequalities and promote the welfare of all. In socialist thought, social transformation involves restructuring society

(i) Colonialism and Imperialism Introduction Colonialism and Imperialism are two interrelated political and economic systems where powerful nations dominate weaker regions to exploit their resources, economy, and people. While both concepts involve foreign rule and control, they have distinct characteristics. A. Understanding Colonialism Example: B. Understanding Imperialism Example: C. Differences Between Colonialism and Imperialism Aspect

(i) Main Elements of Gandhian Pacifism Introduction Gandhian pacifism is a philosophy of nonviolence, truth, and peaceful resistance. It rejects war and aggression as means of resolving conflicts and instead emphasizes moral strength, self-suffering, and love for humanity. Gandhi’s pacifism was not just about avoiding violence but also about actively promoting peace and justice. He

(i) Gandhi’s Concept of Individual Autonomy Introduction Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of individual autonomy is deeply rooted in his ideas of Swaraj (self-rule), self-sufficiency, truth (Satya), and nonviolence (Ahimsa). He believed that true freedom was not just political independence but also personal empowerment, where individuals governed their own lives based on ethical and moral values. Gandhi’s

1. Introduction Fascism and racialism are closely interconnected political ideologies that have historically shaped authoritarian regimes and justified oppression. While fascism is an extreme right-wing political ideology that emphasizes authoritarian rule, nationalism, and suppression of opposition, racialism is the belief that some races are inherently superior to others. Historically, fascist regimes have used racialism as

Introduction Mahatma Gandhi was a strong critic of centralized power and authority, believing that it led to corruption, inefficiency, and exploitation. He argued that power should be decentralized and distributed among the people to ensure a just and democratic society. His concept of “Swaraj” (self-rule) emphasized village-based governance and local autonomy, where decisions were made

Introduction Mahatma Gandhi believed that economic equality was essential for achieving true independence and a just society. He argued that political freedom alone was not enough—without economic justice, real independence would remain an illusion. For Gandhi, non-violent independence (Swaraj) was not just about ending colonial rule but also about ensuring that wealth and resources were