Objectivity Safeguards Objectivity safeguards are methods researchers use to minimize bias and ensure neutrality in data collection and analysis. Common safeguards include: Standardized procedures: Using the same protocols for all participants Blinding: Participants or researchers are unaware of group assignments Replication: Repeating studies to confirm findings Peer review: External evaluation of research methods and results
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Causal Comparative Research Design Causal comparative research design, also known as ex post facto design, involves comparing two or more groups based on a pre-existing condition or characteristic to determine cause-effect relationships. The independent variable is not manipulated but observed as it naturally exists. Example: Comparing academic performance of students from rural and urban schools
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Types of Constructs Constructs are abstract concepts used in research to explain behavior or phenomena. They are measured indirectly through indicators. Types of constructs include: Unidimensional: Represent a single trait (e.g., self-esteem) Multidimensional: Comprise multiple related components (e.g., intelligence, which includes verbal and spatial abilities) Concrete: Observable and measurable behaviors (e.g., hours studied) Abstract: Intangible
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Strengths and Weaknesses of Field Experiment Strengths: High ecological validity due to natural setting Behavior observed in real-world context Participants may be unaware, reducing demand characteristics Weaknesses: Less control over extraneous variables Ethical issues may arise (e.g., lack of informed consent) Difficult to replicate and measure precise effects
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Discourse Analysis Discourse analysis is a qualitative research method used to study language use in texts, conversations, or social interactions. It examines how language constructs meaning, power relations, identity, and social norms. Researchers analyze patterns, metaphors, structures, and context to interpret how communication shapes and reflects social reality.
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Steps of Evaluating Data in Qualitative Research Evaluating data in qualitative research involves a systematic and interpretive process. The key steps include: Data Organization: Transcribe interviews, group notes, and compile field observations. Coding: Identify key themes or patterns in the data through open, axial, or selective coding. Theme Development: Group codes into meaningful categories or
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Ex Post Facto Research Ex post facto research refers to a type of non-experimental study in which the researcher examines the effect of a naturally occurring independent variable on a dependent variable. The term means “after the fact,” as the cause has already occurred, and the researcher analyzes data retrospectively without manipulation or random assignment.
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Introduction Variables are central to any research study as they represent the characteristics or attributes that researchers measure, manipulate, or observe. Understanding different types of variables is essential for designing a study, analyzing data, and interpreting results. Variables differ based on their roles in the research process, level of measurement, and their relationship with other
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Introduction Survey research is a widely used method for collecting data in social sciences, particularly psychology. It involves asking individuals questions to obtain self-reported data on attitudes, behaviors, beliefs, or demographics. To ensure reliability and validity, researchers use specific instruments for data collection. Each instrument is chosen based on the research objectives, the population, and
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Introduction Validity refers to the degree to which a research study accurately reflects or assesses the concept it aims to measure. In research design, two critical forms of validity are internal validity and external validity. Internal validity refers to the credibility of the causal relationship between variables within the study, while external validity concerns the
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