i) Porterage
Porterage refers to the manual transportation of goods, typically by human carriers or animals, in the absence of mechanical means of transport. In pre-modern India, especially in rural and hilly areas, porterage played a vital role in internal trade and the movement of agricultural produce, salt, textiles, and other commodities. Human porters, bullocks, donkeys, and camels were commonly used to transport goods from production areas to markets or ports.
Porterage was especially important in regions where roads were undeveloped or inaccessible to carts. In the context of long-distance trade, porterage was part of the logistics network that connected inland production centers with coastal ports for export. While essential for economic exchange, porterage often involved hard labor and low wages, reflecting the exploitative conditions of transport workers. With the advent of railways and improved road networks during the colonial period, porterage declined but remained significant in remote regions.
ii) Taxes other than Land Tax during Mughal Period
While land revenue was the primary source of income for the Mughal state, several other taxes contributed significantly to the imperial treasury. These taxes reflected the Mughal state’s efforts to extract resources from commerce, professions, and religious groups.
- Customs and Transit Duties: Taxes levied on goods transported across regions, particularly through trade routes and river crossings. They varied based on the type and value of goods.
- Market Tax (Haq-e-Bazari): Charged on goods sold in markets, often collected by municipal authorities or assigned officials.
- Profession and Occupation Taxes: Certain occupational groups, like artisans and shopkeepers, had to pay taxes for licenses to operate.
- Jizya: A religious tax imposed on non-Muslims during parts of the Mughal rule (e.g., re-imposed by Aurangzeb in the 17th century). This tax was often controversial and had socio-political implications.
- Taxes on Manufactures: Taxes were sometimes levied on craft production, particularly in urban centers, which affected guilds and artisans.
These taxes reveal the diverse sources of Mughal revenue and their broad-based extraction system. While efficient in revenue collection, these taxes could also burden small producers and merchants, especially during periods of economic distress.