Short Notes – Section B: Question 10 (i–iv)
i) Medieval Women as Property Holders
In medieval India, the position of women as property holders was shaped by religious customs, regional practices, social status, and legal norms. While generally, women’s property rights were restricted, evidence suggests that women did own and manage property in certain contexts. The nature and extent of such ownership varied significantly across Hindu and Islamic legal systems and between elite and non-elite women.
Under Hindu law, women were entitled to stridhan—property received at the time of marriage, including gifts from parents, relatives, or the husband. This could include jewelry, cash, land, cattle, and household items. Stridhan remained under the woman’s control and was considered her exclusive property. However, her right to inherit ancestral property was limited. Daughters had lower inheritance priority compared to sons and were often excluded unless there were no male heirs.
In Muslim communities, women were legally entitled to inherit a share of family property according to Islamic inheritance law (Shariah). Widows, daughters, and mothers had defined shares, although typically smaller than those of male heirs. They also received a marriage dower (mahr), which was considered a woman’s personal right and property.
Elite women, including queens, princesses, and noblewomen, often held land grants, jagirs, or revenue rights in their own name. Women in royal families also commissioned public works, maintained estates, and managed dowry property. In South India, temple women (devadasis) and merchant women held property and managed donations. In contrast, peasant and artisan women had fewer documented rights, although they may have participated in joint family labor and informal ownership structures.
In conclusion, while medieval women’s legal and social rights to property were often constrained, they were not absent. Pockets of autonomy existed, particularly among upper classes and within specific legal traditions.
ii) Bridges in Medieval Period
Bridges in medieval India served both functional and symbolic purposes. With the expansion of road networks, trade routes, and pilgrimage circuits, bridges became crucial in ensuring uninterrupted travel across rivers, streams, and ravines. Their construction reveals the technological capabilities, administrative planning, and economic priorities of medieval Indian rulers.
Medieval bridges were primarily built of stone, brick, and sometimes wood. They varied in scale from small causeways to large arched structures. In northern India, examples of medieval bridges can be seen in Delhi, Bihar, and the Doab region, often constructed over seasonal rivers. In the Deccan and South India, rulers like the Cholas and Vijayanagara kings supported the construction of stone bridges as part of broader infrastructural initiatives.
During the Delhi Sultanate and Mughal periods, bridge construction received state support, especially in regions with high commercial and military traffic. Firoz Shah Tughlaq and Akbar are noted for their interest in infrastructure, including bridges. These structures were often built along with roads, caravanserais, and water tanks, forming part of a comprehensive transportation system.
Many bridges also had inscriptions detailing the patron, purpose, and date of construction, highlighting the link between public works and royal legitimacy. Some were funded by local merchants, nobles, or religious endowments. Architecturally, they showcased arches, parapets, and solid foundations, reflecting engineering knowledge and adaptability to local geography.
Thus, bridges in medieval India were not just physical connectors but also representations of political authority, economic foresight, and communal cooperation.
iii) Agra as an Important Entreport in the 17th Century
Agra, established as the capital by Sikandar Lodi and later developed by the Mughals, emerged as a major entrepôt (commercial center) during the 17th century. Its location on the Yamuna River and proximity to major trade routes made it a key node in the flow of goods, people, and ideas across North India.
Under Emperor Akbar and his successors, Agra became both a political and economic hub. The city attracted artisans, merchants, bankers, and officials from various regions. Markets in Agra bustled with activity, dealing in goods like textiles (especially cotton and silk), spices, indigo, leather, jewelry, and horses. The presence of wealthy sarrafs and trading guilds facilitated credit and long-distance trade through instruments like hundis.
Agra’s connectivity via the Grand Trunk Road allowed goods from Bengal, Gujarat, and the Deccan to reach the city. It also had links to foreign ports like Surat, through which international trade with Persia, Central Asia, and Europe was conducted. European travelers and traders—such as those from the Portuguese, Dutch, and English East India Companies—frequented Agra for commercial purposes.
The Mughal court played an important role in Agra’s commercial prominence. The imperial demand for luxury items, textiles, arms, and architecture supported a thriving manufacturing sector. The court’s patronage of markets, artisans, and traders created a favorable business environment.
Therefore, Agra’s role as a 17th-century entrepôt was the result of a combination of geographical advantage, imperial policy, and commercial infrastructure.
iv) Karkhana and the Artisans
Karkhanas were state-run manufacturing workshops in medieval India, particularly under the Delhi Sultanate and the Mughal Empire. They were centers of production for goods needed by the royal household, military, and bureaucracy, ranging from textiles and weapons to jewelry, carpets, and ceremonial items.
Each karkhana specialized in a particular craft—such as the darogha-i-chit (textile workshop), aslah khana (armory), zar khana (mint), and topkhana (artillery). These karkhanas were managed by appointed officials and employed skilled artisans, many of whom were hereditary craftsmen trained within caste or guild traditions.
Artisans in karkhanas produced high-quality goods for court use, diplomatic gifts, and sometimes for sale in state-regulated markets. They received regular wages, materials, and patronage, though often their creative freedom was limited by strict regulations. Karkhanas played a significant role in preserving artistic traditions and standardizing production techniques.
They also contributed to urban employment and craft specialization in cities like Delhi, Agra, Lahore, and Ahmedabad. The Mughal state maintained detailed records of karkhana outputs, costs, and inventories, indicating the bureaucratic sophistication of these institutions.
While private workshops and artisan communities also flourished, karkhanas represented a unique intersection of state control, economic policy, and artisanal labor. Their decline began in the 18th century with the weakening of the Mughal state and the rise of European trading companies who preferred market-based procurement over centralized manufacturing.