How Purine Synthesis is Regulated? Purine nucleotide synthesis is tightly regulated to ensure a balanced supply of purines for DNA, RNA, and energy metabolism. The regulatory mechanisms maintain the correct levels of adenine (AMP) and guanine (GMP) nucleotides while avoiding excess buildup that could be wasteful or toxic. Key Regulatory Points in Purine Synthesis 1. […]
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IGNOU BBCCT-109 Assignment (2025) Metabolism of Carbohydrates and Lipids Course Code: BBCCT-109 Assignment Code: BBCCT-109/TMA/2025 Maximum Marks: 100 Answer List Explain the terms in 2-3 sentences: Substrate level phosphorylation, Glycolysis, Anaplerotic reactions, Chemotrophs, Catabolism (a) Explain different phases of glycolysis. Write the final equation indicating the net production of ATP (b) Why is ATP known
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Fate of Carbohydrates, Lipids, and Proteins in a Well-Fed State Introduction In the well-fed state (postprandial state), the body experiences high levels of glucose and other nutrients in the blood. This triggers insulin release and suppresses glucagon, leading to anabolic processes where nutrients are stored for future use. Each macronutrient—carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins—follows distinct metabolic
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Stages of Cholesterol Biosynthesis and Detailed First Step Introduction Cholesterol biosynthesis is a multi-step anabolic pathway that occurs mainly in the liver. It involves the conversion of acetyl-CoA to cholesterol through several enzymatic reactions. Cholesterol plays a vital role in membrane structure, hormone synthesis, and bile acid formation. Four Main Stages of Cholesterol Biosynthesis 1.
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ATP Yield from Glucose Oxidation vs. β-Oxidation of Palmitic Acid ATP Production from Glucose Oxidation Complete aerobic oxidation of one glucose molecule involves three main stages: glycolysis, the TCA cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Below is a breakdown of the ATP yield: 1. Glycolysis 2 ATP (net gain) 2 NADH → 5 ATP (via oxidative phosphorylation)
Role of Fatty Acid Synthase Complex in Fatty Acid Metabolism Introduction The fatty acid synthase (FAS) complex is a multi-enzyme protein responsible for catalyzing the synthesis of long-chain saturated fatty acids from acetyl-CoA and malonyl-CoA precursors. It plays a vital role in lipid metabolism and energy storage, particularly in the liver, adipose tissue, and mammary
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Ketone Bodies: Synthesis and Role in Diabetes Introduction Ketone bodies are water-soluble molecules produced in the liver during the breakdown of fatty acids. They serve as an alternative energy source during prolonged fasting, starvation, or carbohydrate-restricted conditions. The three primary ketone bodies are: Acetoacetate β-Hydroxybutyrate Acetone Synthesis of Ketone Bodies (Ketogenesis) Ketogenesis occurs in the
Fatty Acid Oxidation Using Palmitic Acid as an Example Introduction Fatty acid oxidation, also known as β-oxidation, is the primary process by which fatty acids are broken down to produce energy. This process takes place in the mitochondria of eukaryotic cells. Palmitic acid (C16:0), a saturated long-chain fatty acid, is a common substrate used to
Glycogenesis and Its Regulation Introduction Glycogenesis is the metabolic process that converts glucose into glycogen for storage. This process is essential for maintaining blood glucose levels and storing energy, primarily in the liver and skeletal muscle. It occurs when the body has an excess of glucose, such as after meals. Steps in Glycogenesis 1. Glucose
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Why Gluconeogenesis is Not a Simple Reversal of Glycolysis Introduction Gluconeogenesis is the biosynthetic process by which glucose is synthesized from non-carbohydrate sources such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. Although it shares several enzymes with glycolysis, gluconeogenesis is not merely a reversed version of glycolysis. This distinction is crucial for metabolic control
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