(a): Thomas Hobbes on the Rights and Duties of the Sovereign
Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679) was an English philosopher best known for his work Leviathan, where he explained his ideas about human nature, society, and government. Hobbes lived during a time of great political turmoil in England, including the Civil War. This shaped his belief that without a strong government, society would fall into chaos. He believed that people should agree to a social contract—in which they give up some of their freedoms to a sovereign or ruler—in exchange for peace and protection.
Rights of the Sovereign
According to Hobbes, once people have agreed to the social contract, they give the sovereign the right to use force, make laws, and maintain order. Here are some key rights Hobbes assigns to the sovereign:
- Absolute Authority: Hobbes believed that to keep the peace, the ruler or sovereign needs a high level of power. This power should not be challenged by the people because any division of power could lead to conflict and civil war.
- Law-Making Power: The sovereign decides what is legal and what is not. Because people have willingly handed over their rights, the sovereign has the final say on creating and interpreting laws.
- Control Over Military and Resources: The sovereign controls the army and resources of the state. This includes the right to collect taxes and decide how public funds should be spent. For Hobbes, a strong central authority is the best way to prevent violence among individuals.
Duties of the Sovereign
While Hobbes gives the sovereign broad powers, he also outlines certain duties:
- Ensuring Peace and Security: The main duty of the sovereign is to provide stability and protect citizens from violence, theft, and other dangers. If the sovereign fails to keep people safe, the social contract loses its meaning.
- Upholding Justice: Although Hobbes does not emphasize moral or religious rules, he does believe in fairness. The sovereign should maintain justice by applying laws equally to all subjects.
- Acting in the Common Interest: The sovereign must consider the common good because a stable society benefits both the ruler and the people. If the sovereign rules poorly and creates misery, then the purpose of the social contract is defeated.
No Right to Revolt
One of Hobbes’s most controversial ideas is that people should not revolt against the sovereign under normal circumstances. Hobbes argued that living under even a harsh ruler is better than living in a state of war. The only exception might be if the sovereign directly threatens a person’s life, in which case self-preservation could override obedience.
Conclusion
Thomas Hobbes’s view of the sovereign’s rights and duties is rooted in his belief that humans are naturally self-interested and prone to conflict. By giving a single authority the power to enforce order, society can avoid the chaos of a “war of all against all.” Though many modern democracies disagree with his idea of absolute power, Hobbes’s emphasis on security and social contracts still shapes political discussions on the nature of governance and individual rights.
(b): Bentham’s Political Philosophy
Jeremy Bentham (1748–1832) was an English philosopher known for developing the theory of utilitarianism, which suggests that the best actions or policies are those that maximize happiness or pleasure for the greatest number of people. Bentham’s ideas played a big role in shaping modern legal and political reforms in Britain and beyond.
1. Principle of Utility
At the heart of Bentham’s philosophy is the “principle of utility.” This principle measures whether an action is good or bad based on how much pleasure or happiness it produces compared to pain. Bentham believed that all human actions aim to increase pleasure and minimize pain.
- Quantifying Pleasure and Pain: Bentham was unique in trying to measure happiness through what he called the “felicific calculus.” He proposed factors like intensity, duration, certainty, and extent to judge how beneficial or harmful an action might be.
- Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number: Instead of focusing on the happiness of just one ruler or a small group, Bentham wanted to ensure that policies helped the majority of people. This idea challenged traditional systems of monarchy and aristocracy, which often prioritized the elite.
2. Political and Legal Reforms
Bentham was very practical in his approach:
- Law as a Tool for Happiness: He argued that laws should not be based on outdated traditions or moral codes but rather on their ability to promote overall welfare. If a law caused more pain than pleasure, it should be changed or removed.
- Representative Government: Bentham supported democratic principles. He believed that a representative government, elected by the people, would be more likely to create laws that benefit the majority.
- Individual Rights: While Bentham recognized personal freedoms, he saw them as secondary to the greatest happiness principle. If a certain right stood in the way of overall happiness, it might need to be reconsidered. This view sometimes brought him into conflict with other liberals who believed in natural or inalienable rights.
3. Criticisms and Legacy
Some critics argue that Bentham’s approach can ignore the rights of minorities if the majority benefits from their loss. Others say that not all forms of happiness can be measured or compared easily. Despite these criticisms, Bentham’s ideas laid the groundwork for modern liberal thought and influenced later philosophers like John Stuart Mill. Many reforms in law, prison systems, and voting rights were inspired by Bentham’s call for rational, happiness-based policies.
4. Conclusion
Bentham’s political philosophy marked a clear shift toward evaluating laws and policies by their outcomes rather than by tradition or moral absolutes. His focus on practicality and measurable effects challenged established norms and guided democratic and social reforms. Even today, debates about public policy often reflect Bentham’s utilitarian thinking, balancing individual freedoms with the goal of creating the greatest good for society as a whole.
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