a. Structural-Functional Approach
The structural-functional approach is a theoretical perspective in anthropology and sociology that sees society as a complex system made up of various parts that work together to maintain stability and order. Each part of society—such as the family, religion, economy, and politics—has a specific function that contributes to the overall functioning of the whole society.
Key Features:
- Structure: Refers to the organized pattern of social relationships and institutions in a society.
- Function: Refers to the role or contribution each part makes to the stability and continuity of society.
- Social Equilibrium: The idea that society naturally works toward a balance, and all parts function to maintain this balance.
One of the main contributors to this approach was A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. He focused on how social structures—like kinship systems—serve important functions in maintaining social order. Another important figure, Émile Durkheim, emphasized the role of collective conscience and moral values in binding people together.
For example, the family structure helps in the reproduction and socialization of children, ensuring the continuation of society. Religion reinforces shared values and social norms, creating a sense of unity.
Criticism:
- It tends to overlook social change and conflict.
- Focuses too much on harmony and stability.
Despite these criticisms, the structural-functional approach has been useful in understanding how societies maintain order and function effectively.
b. Alliance Theory
Alliance theory is an approach to kinship and social organization developed mainly by Claude Lévi-Strauss, a French anthropologist. Unlike descent theory, which focuses on family lines (such as patrilineal or matrilineal descent), alliance theory looks at marriage as the main way societies are structured.
Key Ideas:
- Marriage as Exchange: Marriage is seen as a form of social exchange between groups rather than just individuals.
- Exogamy: The rule that one must marry outside one’s group or kin circle creates alliances between different groups or families.
- Reciprocity: These exchanges are often reciprocal, leading to long-term relationships between families and clans.
Lévi-Strauss believed that the incest taboo (the rule that prohibits marrying close relatives) is the foundation of culture because it forces people to seek partners outside their immediate group, creating a network of alliances.
For example, in some tribal societies, cross-cousin marriage (marriage with the daughter of a mother’s brother or father’s sister) is common. This kind of marriage pattern strengthens ties between different lineages and keeps the community connected.
Importance of Alliance Theory:
- Emphasizes the role of social relationships in kinship.
- Shows how marriages are not only personal choices but also social tools to maintain unity and cooperation among groups.
Although alliance theory has been criticized for being too abstract or ignoring the role of women, it remains an influential theory in the study of kinship and social organization.