a) Upanishad
b) Sankara’s idea of avidya
c) Relation between god and soul in Vishishtadvaita
d) Vivekananda’s concept of Universal Religion
e) Concept of Democracy in Ambedkar’s Philosophy
f) Kashmir Shaivism
g) Rasa-anumiti-vada
h) vishesh
ANSWER:
a) Upanishad: Upanishads are ancient Indian texts that form the philosophical foundation of Hinduism. They are a collection of spiritual and metaphysical teachings, often presented in the form of dialogues between a guru (teacher) and shishya (student). Upanishads explore profound questions about the nature of reality, the self (Atman), and the ultimate truth (Brahman). They emphasize meditation, self-realization, and the unity of the individual soul (Atman) with the universal soul (Brahman). The Upanishads are considered the concluding part of the Vedas and have had a profound influence on Indian philosophy and spirituality.
b) Sankara’s Idea of Avidya: Adi Shankaracharya, a prominent philosopher of Advaita Vedanta, introduced the concept of avidya, which refers to ignorance or the fundamental misunderstanding of the true nature of reality. According to Shankara, avidya is the root cause of samsara (the cycle of birth and death) and leads individuals to mistakenly identify with their ego rather than realizing their true identity as the unchanging, formless Brahman. Avidya is overcome through self-inquiry (atma-vichara) and the realization that the individual self (Atman) is identical to the ultimate reality (Brahman).
c) Relation between God and Soul in Vishishtadvaita: Vishishtadvaita, a school of Vedanta philosophy, posits that the individual souls (Atman) are eternally distinct from but intimately related to the Supreme Reality (Brahman or God). While the individual souls have qualities (gunas) and exist within the body, God (Vishnu) is the controller of all souls and the universe. The relationship is characterized by “sarira-sariri bhava,” meaning God is the Soul of all souls. The individual souls are dependent on God for their existence and liberation. Vishishtadvaita emphasizes devotion (bhakti) as the means to attain God and realize the unity of the individual soul with the Supreme Soul.
d) Vivekananda’s Concept of Universal Religion: Swami Vivekananda, a key figure in the introduction of Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the Western world, proposed the idea of a universal religion. He believed that all religions at their core teach the same truths and values, emphasizing the divinity of the soul and the oneness of all existence. Vivekananda argued that differences among religions are superficial and that true religion transcends dogma and rituals. His concept of a universal religion encourages individuals to recognize the unity of all faiths and to strive for the realization of their spiritual potential through self-discipline and service to others.
e) Concept of Democracy in Ambedkar’s Philosophy: Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, a prominent figure in the Indian independence movement and the architect of India’s Constitution, advocated for democracy as a means to address social injustices and ensure the political empowerment of marginalized communities, especially the Dalits (formerly untouchables). Ambedkar believed that democracy must not only exist in political institutions but also extend to social and economic spheres to eradicate caste-based discrimination. He saw democracy as a way to ensure equal rights and opportunities for all citizens, regardless of their social background. Ambedkar’s vision of democracy included reservations for marginalized groups in government jobs and educational institutions to uplift historically oppressed communities.
f) Kashmir Shaivism: Kashmir Shaivism is a prominent school of Shaiva philosophy that originated in the Kashmir Valley. It emphasizes the concept of “Shiva tattva,” the supreme consciousness, and “Shakti,” the divine feminine energy. Kashmir Shaivism teaches that the entire universe is an expression of Shiva’s consciousness and that individuals can attain liberation by recognizing their intrinsic divinity. The philosophy incorporates practices such as meditation, mantra, and ritual to awaken one’s awareness of divine presence. Kashmir Shaivism is known for its non-dualistic and monistic interpretation of reality, emphasizing the oneness of the individual soul (Atman) with the ultimate reality (Brahman).
g) Rasa-Anumiti-Vada: Rasa-Anumiti-Vada is a theory in Indian aesthetics, particularly associated with Bharata’s Natya Shastra. It focuses on the aesthetics of emotions and artistic expression in drama and poetry. According to this theory, artists can evoke specific emotions (rasas) in the audience through their creative work. Rasa-Anumiti-Vada explores the idea that the audience can empathize with the emotions portrayed in a performance or literary work, allowing them to experience a range of emotional states and aesthetic pleasures.
h) Vishesh: Vishesh is a term used in various Indian philosophical traditions, including Nyaya and Vaisheshika. It refers to particularity or individuality. In Nyaya, Vishesh is one of the padarthas (categories of existence) and represents the uniqueness or specific attributes of an individual object or entity. It plays a crucial role in Nyaya-Vaisheshika metaphysics, where objects are understood as combinations of universal qualities (guna) and particularity (vishesh).
Each of these topics provides valuable insights into Indian philosophy, aesthetics, and spirituality, offering diverse perspectives on fundamental questions about the nature of reality, human existence, and the pursuit of meaning and truth.