The Vijayanagara kingdom, founded in 1336 CE by Harihara I and Bukka Raya I of the Sangama dynasty, stands as one of the most significant and enduring state formations in South Indian history. Its emergence marked a powerful response to the fragmentation and foreign invasions that followed the decline of the Hoysalas and Cholas. The nature of state formation in the Vijayanagara Empire was characterized by military prowess, administrative innovation, cultural patronage, and a blend of traditional and new governance structures.
The origin of the Vijayanagara state was deeply rooted in the political need to resist the expanding influence of the Delhi Sultanate and to defend Hindu dharma. The founders, reportedly erstwhile commanders under the Kakatiyas or Hoysalas, were instrumental in reviving indigenous political authority. With the blessings of the sage Vidyaranya, the capital of Vijayanagara (modern Hampi) was established along the banks of the Tungabhadra River—strategically chosen for its defensible terrain and access to resources.
The Vijayanagara state formation followed a centralized model with a strong monarch at the apex, supported by a well-structured bureaucracy and military apparatus. The king held absolute authority and was considered the upholder of dharma. However, the administration also relied on delegated authority through regional governors and feudal lords known as ‘Nayakas.’ The Nayaka system became one of the defining features of the Vijayanagara state, wherein local chieftains managed land and military resources in return for allegiance and tribute to the central authority.
The state was divided into several provinces (rajya or mandala), each administered by a governor (dandanayaka or nayaka), often from the royal family or trusted nobility. These provinces were further subdivided into districts (nadu), towns (sthala), and villages (grama). Revenue collection was systematic and based on detailed land surveys. Agriculture was the economic backbone, supported by extensive irrigation works including tanks and canals, especially in the semi-arid Deccan plateau.
The military played a vital role in state consolidation. Vijayanagara maintained a standing army composed of infantry, cavalry, elephants, and artillery. The Nayakas were also responsible for maintaining troops and supporting the king during warfare. The empire engaged in constant conflict with the Bahmani Sultanate, the Deccan sultanates, and the Gajapatis of Orissa. The famous Battle of Talikota in 1565 CE, which eventually led to the empire’s decline, was a culmination of these sustained rivalries.
Religion and temple patronage were integral to legitimizing rule. The Vijayanagara rulers supported various sects including Shaivism, Vaishnavism, and even Jainism. Grand temples such as those at Hampi, Lepakshi, and Tirupati were built or expanded, not only as places of worship but also as centers of economy and administration. The temple economy involved land grants, endowments, and employment, weaving the religious into the political fabric.
The court of Vijayanagara was a cultural hub, attracting poets, scholars, and artists from across the subcontinent. Sanskrit, Telugu, Tamil, and Kannada literature flourished under royal patronage. Foreign travelers like Niccolò de’ Conti, Domingo Paes, and Abdul Razzaq described Vijayanagara as one of the wealthiest and most organized empires of its time.
In conclusion, the state formation of the Vijayanagara kingdom was a result of strategic leadership, military strength, cultural unity, and religious legitimacy. It established a model of governance that balanced central authority with regional autonomy, deeply embedded in South Indian political traditions, yet responsive to the challenges of its time. The legacy of Vijayanagara continues to be remembered for its contributions to Indian polity, architecture, and cultural synthesis.