MHI-108

Introduction India’s long history is marked by recurrent natural calamities such as floods, droughts, earthquakes, famines, and epidemics. These events occurred across both ancient and medieval periods, shaping settlement patterns, political decisions, and even the rise and fall of empires. Responses to these calamities were rooted in religious practices, local resource management, and royal interventions,

Introduction During British colonial rule in India, a systematic attempt was made to study, classify, and control nature, especially in growing urban centers like Kolkata (formerly Calcutta). As the capital of British India until 1911, Kolkata was not only a center for governance and commerce but also a site for applying colonial scientific knowledge systems

Introduction Natural resources such as forests, rivers, minerals, and fertile land are essential for sustaining human livelihoods. However, uncontrolled exploitation of these resources—through deforestation, mining, industrialization, and overfishing—has often led to environmental degradation, resulting in the loss of livelihoods for millions of people, especially those who depend on nature for their survival, such as farmers,

Introduction Ecological imperialism refers to the environmental impact of colonial expansion, where European powers introduced new species, agricultural systems, and ecological changes to colonized regions. This concept was popularized by historian Alfred W. Crosby in his 1986 book “Ecological Imperialism: The Biological Expansion of Europe, 900-1900.” The theory suggests that European dominance over other parts

(i) Sacred Groves Introduction Sacred groves are forest patches conserved by local communities due to religious, cultural, and ecological importance. These groves are often dedicated to deities, ancestors, or spirits, ensuring natural preservation without human interference. Found across India, Africa, and Southeast Asia, they serve as biodiversity hotspots and traditional conservation sites. A. Significance of

Introduction Forests have been an integral part of India’s natural and cultural landscape, playing a vital role in sustaining biodiversity, supporting livelihoods, and shaping religious and economic activities. In precolonial India, forests were diverse, extensive, and governed by local communities, who used them for sustenance, trade, and spiritual practices. However, deforestation in precolonial India was

Introduction Grasslands are vast ecosystems dominated by grasses rather than large trees and have played a crucial role in human civilization, agriculture, and biodiversity conservation. These ecosystems are found across the world, including prairies in North America, steppes in Eurasia, pampas in South America, and savannas in Africa and India. The history of grasslands is

Introduction The monsoon is one of the most significant climatic phenomena affecting the Indian subcontinent. It plays a crucial role in shaping the region’s agriculture, economy, biodiversity, and cultural traditions. The monsoon is a seasonal wind system that brings heavy rainfall during the summer months (June-September) and influences temperature, water availability, and crop production. The