2025

Introduction The United Nations Millennium Report (2002) was a landmark document that emphasized human security as a fundamental global priority. It recognized that security is not just about military defense but also includes freedom from poverty, disease, human rights violations, and environmental degradation. The report, presented by UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan, laid the foundation for […]

Introduction External interventions refer to actions taken by foreign governments, international organizations, or multinational corporations in another country’s affairs. These interventions can be political, economic, humanitarian, or military, and they often impact environmental, food, and economic security. While external interventions can bring financial aid, infrastructure development, and technological advancements, they can also lead to exploitation,

Introduction Terrorism is a form of political violence used by non-state actors to achieve political, ideological, or religious goals. It is considered asymmetrical warfare because it involves unequal power dynamics, where weaker groups use unconventional tactics against stronger state forces. Unlike traditional warfare, terrorism relies on fear, surprise attacks, and targeting civilians to influence governments

Introduction South Asia, home to over 1.9 billion people, has witnessed various forms of political violence, including ethnic conflicts, religious extremism, separatist movements, and terrorism. The region’s historical rivalries, colonial legacies, socio-economic disparities, and weak governance structures have contributed to ongoing instability. One of the most affected countries in South Asia is Pakistan, where multiple

(i) India’s Role in Afghan Reconstruction Introduction After the fall of the Taliban regime in 2001, Afghanistan faced political instability, economic collapse, and infrastructure destruction. India has played a significant role in the reconstruction of Afghanistan, focusing on infrastructure, education, healthcare, and diplomatic support. India’s assistance is based on its “Neighbourhood First” policy and aims

(i) Champaran Satyagraha Introduction The Champaran Satyagraha (1917) was Mahatma Gandhi’s first major civil disobedience movement in India. It was a nonviolent protest against the exploitation of Indigo farmers by British landlords in Bihar. This movement marked the beginning of Gandhi’s leadership in India’s freedom struggle. A. Causes of the Champaran Satyagraha B. Key Events

(i) Conflict Transformation Introduction Conflict transformation is a long-term approach to peacebuilding that focuses on changing the underlying causes of conflict rather than just resolving immediate disputes. Unlike conflict resolution, which seeks short-term solutions, conflict transformation aims for deep, structural changes in society to ensure lasting peace. A. Key Principles of Conflict Transformation B. Difference

(i) Feminist Approach to Peacebuilding Introduction The feminist approach to peacebuilding emphasizes gender equality, women’s empowerment, and the role of women in conflict resolution. Unlike traditional peacebuilding models, which are often male-dominated, the feminist approach highlights the importance of including women’s voices in negotiations, policy-making, and post-conflict reconstruction. This approach is rooted in the belief

(i) Role of World Bank and International Monetary Fund (IMF) Introduction The World Bank and the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are two of the most influential international financial institutions. Established in 1944 at the Bretton Woods Conference, they aim to promote global economic stability, reduce poverty, and support economic development. While both organizations deal with

Introduction Mahatma Gandhi’s concept of Swaraj (self-rule) is one of his most significant political and social philosophies. Swaraj does not merely mean political independence from British rule; it is a broader vision of self-governance, self-reliance, and moral discipline at the individual, village, and national levels. Gandhi believed that Swaraj would lead to Sarvodaya (welfare of