MHI-09: Indian National Movement – Extended Short Notes for Question 10
This post provides detailed, extended responses (250+ words each) for all parts of Question 10 from the IGNOU MHI-09 assignment.
a) Reasons for Congress’ Acceptance of Partition
The Indian National Congress, long committed to a united India, reluctantly accepted the partition of the country in 1947. This decision stemmed from multiple political, social, and strategic factors. First and foremost was the unrelenting communal violence that erupted following the Muslim League’s Direct Action Day in August 1946. The scale of riots, particularly in Calcutta, Noakhali, and Bihar, left thousands dead and deepened communal animosities, creating a climate of fear and insecurity. Congress leaders began to fear that civil war was imminent.
Secondly, repeated failed negotiations between the Congress and Muslim League exhausted all prospects for unity. The League’s insistence on a separate Muslim state and its refusal to cooperate under a united Indian government, as proposed by the Cabinet Mission Plan, led to a political impasse. The Congress’s vision of a centralized democratic India clashed with the League’s demand for parity and autonomy.
Thirdly, the British, under Lord Mountbatten, proposed a swift transfer of power to avoid prolonged unrest. The Mountbatten Plan offered partition as a quick solution. Leaders like Nehru and Patel felt partition was the only viable option to secure independence and avoid deeper conflict. Gandhi, initially opposed, eventually did not actively resist the idea.
Ultimately, Congress saw partition as a tragic but necessary compromise. The decision was driven not by ideology but by practical realities—violence, deadlock, and the need for a timely end to British rule.
b) The Attitude of the Indian Capitalists towards the Congress
Indian capitalists, particularly from prominent industrial families like the Tatas, Birlas, and Bajajs, gradually began to align with the Indian National Congress from the late 1920s onwards. Initially wary of its mass-based and somewhat anti-colonial rhetoric, they were later drawn in due to shared economic interests and ideological shifts within the Congress.
British colonial economic policies were heavily biased toward British manufacturers, restricting Indian entrepreneurs through tariff structures and import preferences. This protection of British business stifled indigenous industry, prompting Indian capitalists to support Swadeshi and economic nationalism, both of which the Congress actively promoted. Leaders like Gandhi encouraged the development of indigenous industries, such as khadi and small-scale manufacturing, aligning well with capitalist goals.
By the 1930s, many capitalists saw Congress not only as a political force but as a potential partner in post-independence economic development. The Bombay Plan (1944), authored by leading industrialists, proposed a state-led model of industrialization and economic planning, reflecting their willingness to work with Congress on nation-building. While the Congress had a strong socialist wing, capitalists viewed the party as moderate compared to radical alternatives like the Communists.
Moreover, businessmen contributed financially to the Congress and participated in advisory capacities. This support grew stronger during World War II, when anti-colonial sentiment peaked. By the time of independence, Indian capitalists were firmly aligned with the Congress, anticipating a mixed economy conducive to their growth.
c) The Relations between Congress and Muslims from 1885 to 1914
The relationship between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim community between 1885 and 1914 was marked by initial collaboration followed by growing suspicion and eventual political divergence. In its early years, Congress had some Muslim participation, with figures like Badruddin Tyabji playing important roles. Tyabji even served as Congress President in 1887, symbolizing a desire for communal unity.
However, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a key leader of Muslim reform and education, distanced himself from the Congress. He argued that the party, dominated by Hindu elites, did not adequately represent Muslim political interests. His advocacy of separate political development for Muslims laid the groundwork for future communal politics. Educational and economic backwardness among Muslims compared to Hindus further complicated relations.
The Congress’s mass agitation against the 1905 partition of Bengal, which many Muslims supported, exacerbated communal divisions. Muslims saw the partition as a chance for administrative efficiency and political empowerment in East Bengal. Congress’s opposition, driven by Hindu-majority concerns, alienated large sections of the Muslim community.
The formation of the All India Muslim League in 1906, with the explicit goal of safeguarding Muslim interests, marked a turning point. Although efforts at unity, such as the Lucknow Pact of 1916, came later, the period from 1885 to 1914 set the stage for future communal politics. The lack of adequate Muslim representation in Congress decisions fostered mutual distrust and eventual political separation.
d) Salient Features of the Indian Constitution
The Constitution of India, adopted on January 26, 1950, is a landmark document reflecting the country’s commitment to democracy, justice, and pluralism. It is among the most detailed and comprehensive constitutions in the world. Several salient features make it distinct and adaptable to India’s diverse social fabric.
Length and Written Form: The Constitution originally consisted of 395 Articles divided into 22 Parts and 8 Schedules (now expanded), making it one of the most elaborate in the world. Its detailed nature was intended to address India’s complex social, linguistic, and regional diversity.
Federal Structure with Unitary Features: The Constitution establishes a federal system, dividing powers between the Center and the States. However, it has strong unitary elements, such as emergency powers and the role of Governors, enabling central control in crisis situations.
Parliamentary Democracy: India follows the Westminster model, with a President as the ceremonial head and a Prime Minister as the head of government. The executive is accountable to the legislature, ensuring representative governance.
Fundamental Rights and Duties: Citizens are granted six fundamental rights, including equality, freedom of speech, and religious freedom. The Constitution also introduced Fundamental Duties in the 42nd Amendment to promote civic responsibility.
Directive Principles of State Policy: These are guidelines for the state to achieve social and economic welfare. Though non-justiciable, they reflect the spirit of the Constitution and influence policy-making.
Secularism and Social Justice: The Constitution declares India a secular nation and prohibits discrimination based on religion, caste, or gender. It also provides for affirmative action through reservations.
Judicial Independence and Review: The judiciary is independent and empowered with judicial review, allowing it to strike down unconstitutional laws and protect fundamental rights.
The Constitution thus serves as the foundational framework for India’s democratic functioning, social justice, and unity in diversity.