Short Notes – Section A: Question 5 (i–iv)
i) First Farmers of Bihar and the Doab
The emergence of agriculture in the regions of Bihar and the Ganga-Yamuna Doab marks a significant chapter in India’s early economic history. Archaeological evidence from sites such as Chirand (in Bihar) and Koldihwa and Mahagara (in the Doab) reveals that farming communities existed in these areas as early as the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods, around 7000–3000 BCE. These communities practiced mixed farming, cultivating crops like wheat, barley, and rice, alongside domestication of animals such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
In the Ganga-Yamuna Doab, the presence of rice cultivation is especially significant, as it shows early adaptation to the wet and alluvial environment. Sites like Lahuradewa (in present-day Uttar Pradesh) show rice cultivation as early as 6000 BCE. The archaeological remains include polished stone tools, microliths, hand-made pottery, and evidence of storage pits and housing structures, indicating sedentary life. The transition from foraging to farming allowed for greater food production, population growth, and eventually the emergence of social stratification and trade networks. These early farmers laid the foundation for the development of the northern agrarian economy, which became crucial in later periods like the Mauryan and Gupta eras.
ii) Craft Specialisation: Harappan Period
The Harappan Civilization (c. 2600–1900 BCE), also known as the Indus Valley Civilization, was marked by a high degree of craft specialization. Artifacts recovered from urban centers like Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Lothal, and Dholavira reveal the existence of highly organized production systems for pottery, beads, seals, metallurgy, and textiles. Evidence shows the use of standardized weights and measures, workshops, kilns, and tools, indicating that crafts were produced not just for local consumption but also for trade.
Bead-making from semi-precious stones like carnelian and lapis lazuli was particularly advanced, with centers like Chanhudaro excelling in this craft. Pottery, often wheel-thrown and decorated with geometric or animal motifs, was mass-produced, suggesting skilled artisans and organized labor. Metalwork in copper and bronze, including tools and figurines like the famous Dancing Girl, shows metallurgical sophistication. Textile production is inferred from spindle whorls and impressions on seals and pottery. The specialization in crafts contributed to the economic complexity of the Harappan society, enabled surplus generation, and fostered long-distance trade with Mesopotamia and Central Asia.
iii) Fluvial Routes
Fluvial or riverine routes played a crucial role in the development of trade and communication in ancient India. Rivers such as the Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, and Narmada served as natural highways that connected urban centers, rural hinterlands, and trade hubs. These river routes enabled the movement of goods, people, and ideas, especially in an era when overland transport was difficult and expensive.
Archaeological and textual evidence (such as in the Arthashastra and Buddhist texts) indicate that boats and ferries were widely used for transporting grains, salt, textiles, and other commodities. Major urban centers like Pataliputra, Kausambi, and Varanasi thrived due to their strategic locations along rivers. River ports like Tamralipti on the Ganga delta became gateways for maritime trade with Southeast Asia. The integration of riverine transport into administrative and commercial systems helped in the centralization of political control and contributed to economic prosperity. Seasonal floods also deposited nutrient-rich silt that enriched agriculture along riverbanks, further reinforcing the economic importance of rivers.
iv) Urban Centres: c.600 BCE to 300 CE
The period between 600 BCE and 300 CE witnessed significant urban expansion in the Indian subcontinent. This era, which saw the rise of the Mahajanapadas, the Mauryan Empire, and later regional kingdoms, was marked by the growth of cities as political, administrative, and economic hubs. Cities like Rajagriha, Taxila, Ujjain, Pataliputra, and Mathura emerged as major urban centers, often located along trade routes or river systems.
These urban centers featured planned layouts, fortifications, public buildings, markets, and craft workshops. Excavations have revealed evidence of coin usage, standardized weights, and writing systems, indicating a high level of economic activity and bureaucratic control. The expansion of trade, both inland and maritime, contributed to the prosperity of these cities. Religious institutions also played a role, with cities like Sarnath and Sanchi becoming centers of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage. Urbanization during this period reflected the growing complexity of the economy, specialization of labor, and the emergence of a monetized exchange system. These developments laid the groundwork for further economic consolidation in the Gupta period.